基本概念習(xí)題等多個文件-society

10Society,culture,andlanguage

洪波Content1.Thedilemmathatteachersandlinguistbothfaced2.Thesocialsciences3.Definitionofsociology4.Theevolutionofsociology5.Thedefinitionofanthropology6.FamousfiguresinanthropologyDilemma(左右為難):Thedilemmathatteachersandlinguistbothfaced

linguisticformspeopleandcountryIftheyconcetratetoohardonlingguisticformsandforgetthepeoplewhousetheformsinordinarycommunication,theydistorttherealityoflanguageuse.linguisticformspeopleandcountryIftheyovermphasizepeopleandcountryanddisregardthedetailsoflinguisticformstheirteachingtendstoesuperficialandunserviceable.teachlanguagesocialcontextThedelemmareflectstheissuethatintheoreticallinguisticshasproducedaseparationoftheareasstudiedby“l(fā)inguisticsproper”(‘micro-linguistics’,‘linguisticlinguistics’)fromthestudyoflanguageinthesocialcontext.wecannotteachalanguagewithoutcomingfacetofacewithsocialcontextfactorswhichhavebearingonlanguageandlanguagelearning.Thelanguageandsocietyareinmanywayscloselylinked.

ThesocialsciencesManydisciplinesareconcernedwithaspectsofsociety,forexample,history,law,economics,andpoliticalscience.Themostgeneralstudiesaresociology,ethnology,ethnography,socialandculturalanthropology,andsociolinguistics.社會學(xué)產(chǎn)生的歷史背景:第一本以社會學(xué)為題目的書是19世紀(jì)中期的英國哲學(xué)家HerbertSpencer,（18201903）赫伯特·斯賓塞所著，以工業(yè)革命為先導(dǎo)的18世紀(jì)的經(jīng)濟(jì)變革，使歐洲從過去的禮俗社會變成工業(yè)社會。奧古斯特·孔德，開創(chuàng)了社會學(xué)這一學(xué)科，被尊稱為“社會學(xué)之父”社會學(xué)（Sociology）這個詞就是他首先提出并使用的，從而使他成為資產(chǎn)階級社會學(xué)的創(chuàng)始人。SociologyDefinition1)Itobservedandreflectduponthesocietiesandgroupsinwhichtheylive.Itisamodernscience.2)Asascienceitissomewhatyoungerthanpsychologyandanearcontemporaryoflinguistics.3)Ithasarisenasaself-examinatinofmanintheever-changinginduitrialworldwhichconstitutestheenvironmentinwhichhelives.

Evolutionofsociology1)Inthefirststageofitsgrowthfromabout1850to1900,influencedbythesocialphilosophiesofComte,Spencer,andMarxwhocanbeconsideredthe'fathers'ofsociologyandanthropology,itbeganwithambitionstoembracethewholelifeandhistoryofhumansociety.2)Towardstheendofthecentury,inasecondstageofitsgrowth,sociologydevelopeditsowncharacteristicapproachtoallstudiesofsociety:law,history,politics,religionandsoon.3)Sociologygrewintheinterwaryearsasanacademicdisciplinewithchairsintheuniversities,professionalassociations,andlearnedjournals.4)AfterWorldWar?

,asaresultofthegrowinginfluenceandimportanceofthesocialsciencesduringthewaryears,sociologycontinuedtogrowandexpand.5)Arecenttrendinsociologyreflectsalackofconfidenceintheadvancesofscienceandtechnologyandasearchformeaninginthestudyofsimplepersonalrelationships.Concernedprimarilywithface-to-faceinteractionandtheprocessofunderstandingininterpersonalcommunicationineverydaytalk.社會學(xué)發(fā)展階段早期發(fā)展1850---1900早期社會學(xué)是指產(chǎn)生和形成期的社會學(xué)。這個時期的社會學(xué)主要形成了社會學(xué)發(fā)展史上的三大傳統(tǒng)，即孔德的實證主義社會學(xué)、韋伯的理解社會學(xué)和馬克思主義批判社會學(xué)。中期發(fā)展社會學(xué)的中期發(fā)展是指孔德、馬克思、迪爾凱姆和韋伯之后到20世紀(jì)40年代，社會學(xué)在世界各國的傳播與發(fā)展。19世紀(jì)70年代以前，社會學(xué)只存在于它的發(fā)源地歐洲少數(shù)國家,從70年代中期開始，首先傳入美國，然后世界各主要國家或者通過美國，或者直接從歐洲把社會學(xué)引入本土，直到第二次世界大戰(zhàn)爆發(fā)，是歐洲社會學(xué)在世界各國的傳播與發(fā)展時期。當(dāng)代發(fā)展當(dāng)代社會學(xué)是指第二次世界大戰(zhàn)以后迄今的社會學(xué)。這是社會學(xué)研究日益深入和不斷完善、社會學(xué)知識的分工和專業(yè)化程度日趨嚴(yán)密的時期，也是社會學(xué)在世界范圍內(nèi)獲得普遍傳播和發(fā)展的時期。AnthropologyDefinition:1)Anthropologyiswiderthansociology.2)Thedescriptionandexplanationofsimilariesanddifferencesamonghumanethnicgroups.3)Anthropologyincludesthestudyofphysicalvariationsamonghumanraces.Thedistinctionbetween'social'and'cultual'anthropology.a)Britishanthropologistsundertheinfluencehaveviewedanthropologyasascienceofsocialstructureandfunctionorasasociologyofprimitivesocirties.b)Americananthropologiesregardedanthropologyasoneofadescriptionandinterpretationofprimitivecultures.Twoancestriesofanthropology.1)Itisintimatelylinkedwithphilosophicalspeculationsonmankind'sorigi,diversityanddevelopment.2)Itssecondoriginliesintheethnographicreportson'primitive'and'savage'peoplebroughtbacktoEuropebyEropeanwhiteconquerors,traders,travellers,andmissionaries.法蘭茲·鮑亞士Boas鮑亞士對于人類學(xué)具有不朽的影響。所有人類學(xué)家如今都接受鮑亞士對經(jīng)驗論及他的方法論文化相對論的支持。文化相對論這是對文化人類學(xué)的研究態(tài)度和文化評價。要求研究者客觀地看待被研究的對象。一般采用文化主位研究法，從被研究者的角度來看待被研究者的文化。ContributionsofBoas1)Boasdemandedthateachsociety(anditslanguage)bestudiedonitsowntermsandinitsownhistoricalsettingbythebestempiricalmeansavailable,aviodingspeculativeexplanationsabouttheevolutionofmankind.(P197line1)2)Boasinsistedthataculturebestudiedinsuchawaythattheanthropolgistcametounderstanditfromtheperspectiveofthenativeparticipation.(P197line11)馬林諾夫斯基(BronislawMalinowski)1)Acultureshouldbetreatedascoherentsysteminwhichdifferentpartshavecertainfunctions;andbothapproacheshavebeendescibedas'functionalism'2)Aculturemustmeetthreesetsofneeds:a)Thebasicneedsoftheindividual.b)theinstrumentalneedsofthesociety.c)Thesymbolicandintegrativeneedsofboththeindividualandsociety.功能主義和結(jié)構(gòu)主義MalinowskiandRadcliffe-Brown馬林諾夫斯基(Malinowski)是功能派的代表人物。這派認(rèn)為，解釋人類學(xué)事實的唯一途徑是說明它在一定文化中正在發(fā)揮的功能，因此人類學(xué)研究的目標(biāo)是把握文化整體與各個部分之間的有機(jī)聯(lián)系，歷史的比較方法意義不大。相反，拉德克利夫-布朗(A.R.Radcliffe-Brown)是結(jié)構(gòu)主義的倡導(dǎo)者。這派認(rèn)為人類學(xué)研究的目的在于揭示超乎經(jīng)驗事實的系統(tǒng)的本質(zhì)。LanguageinanthropologyandsociologyAdevelopedlanguageisauniqueanddistinctivehumantrait,andhumansocietyisahigherleveloforganizationofbehaviourthanmerelyinstinctiveoranimalbehaviour.AnthropologyLanguagecanbestudiedasaself-containedsystemandrequiresanexpertiseofitsown.Butthestudyofalanguageconstantlydemandsaninterpretationofsociallydeterminedmeaning.Thestudyofdifferentaspectsofculturerequiresanunderstandingoftheverbalaspectsofthatculture.Interactionbetweenthetwodisciplinelinguisticanthropology語言人類學(xué)anthropologicallinguistics人類語言學(xué)relationsbetweenlanguageandculturefromthepointofanthropologydealingwithlanguageproblemsinanthropologicalresearchGreatfiguresSapirSapirisdescribedastheoriginatorofmodernAmericanlinguistics.1)Hearguesthatlanguagedeterminesthoughtandworldview,cultureandthoughtaredependentuponlanguage.(p202)2)Heinsiststhatsuchconceptsas'race','culture',and'language'shouldnotbeconfusedoridentifiedwitheachother.Inhislaterwritingsheexpressedhimselfmorepositivelyaboutthisrelationshipthanintheearlierquotation.Bloomfield(1887-1949)TheprincipalrepresentativeofAmericandescriptivelinguistics.HeissuchalandmarkfigureinthehistoryofAmericanlinguisticsthattheperiodbetween1933and1950isknownasBloomfieldEra,inwhichAmericandescriptivelinguisticsformallycameintobeingandreacheditsprimedevelopment.Hisresearchincludedfieldstudiesinanthropologicallinguistics.Inhisearlierworkheinsistedonacloselinkbetweenlinguisticsandethnology.(p203paragraph2line3)TheWhorfianhypothesisLanguagelearnersareonlytoowellawereofthefactthatcertainaspectsofanewlanguage-itemsofvocabulary,orgrammaticalfeatures-oftenimplyconceptsforwhichthenativelanguagehasnoequivalent.Contrastiveanalysisisfoundedonsuchcomparisons.Onelanguagehasseparatevocabularyitemsforconceptswhichareleftundifferentiatedinanotherlanguage.(p203paragraph3line7)薩丕爾-沃爾夫假說語言塑造了我們的思維模式，相應(yīng)地，不同的語言表達(dá)決定了人們認(rèn)識世界方式的不同。從這個觀點出發(fā)，可以得到兩點認(rèn)識：一方面，語言可以決定我們的思維方式；另一方面，語言之間的相似性是相對的，結(jié)構(gòu)性差異越大，反應(yīng)出對于世界的認(rèn)識越不同。因此這個假說也稱為“語言決定論”和“語言相對主義”。Overthelasttwoorthreedecadesseveralinvestigatorshavetestedthehepothesiswithconflictingresultsbystudyingdifferentaspectsoflanguageinrelationtoextra-linguisticfactorsindifferentcultures.(p2061.2.3.)對教育學(xué)的啟示：Forlanguagepedagogy,thesestudieshavebeenextremelyimportant.Theyhaveledtothewidespreadconvictionthatthelanguagelearnershouldnotonlystudytheculturalcontextbutthatheshouldbemadeawareoftheinteractionbetweenlanguageandculture.Thecontextofsituation(語言環(huán)境),acentualconceptinthedevelopmentoflinguisticsinBritainbyFirthwhoacknowledgeshisindebtednesstoMalinowski.(p209paragraph1line4)Descriptivelinguistics（描寫語言學(xué)）,accordingtoFirth,is'anautonomousgroupofrelateddisciplines-suchasphonetics,phonology,grammar,lexicography（詞典編輯學(xué)）,semantics,andwhatmaybecalledthe"sociologyoflanguage''(p209paragraph2line4)ThebasicunitoflinguisticsforFirthisthelanguageevent,andthecontextofsituationbringsitintorelationto:(a)therelevantfeaturesofparticipants:persons,personalities1)theverbalinteractionoftheparticpants2)thenon-verbalinteractionoftheparticipants;(b)therelevantobjects;